In communication systems, a goal is to transport information from one physical location to another. It is typically desirable that the transport of this information is reliable, is fast and consumes a minimal amount of resources. One common information transfer medium is the serial communications link, which may be based on a single wire circuit relative to ground or other common reference, or multiple such circuits relative to ground or other common reference. A common example uses singled-ended signaling (“SES”). SES operates by sending a signal on one wire, and measuring the signal relative to a fixed reference at the receiver. A serial communication link may also be based on multiple circuits used in relation to each other. A common example of the latter uses differential signaling (“DS”). Differential signaling operates by sending a signal on one wire and the opposite of that signal on a matching wire. The signal information is represented by the difference between the wires, rather than their absolute values relative to ground or other fixed reference.
There are a number of signaling methods that maintain the desirable properties of DS while increasing pin efficiency over DS. Vector signaling is a method of signaling. With vector signaling, a plurality of signals on a plurality of wires is considered collectively although each of the plurality of signals might be independent. Each of the collective signals is referred to as a component and the number of plurality of wires is referred to as the “dimension” of the vector. In some embodiments, the signal on one wire is entirely dependent on the signal on another wire, as is the case with DS pairs, so in some cases the dimension of the vector might refer to the number of degrees of freedom of signals on the plurality of wires instead of exactly the number of wires in the plurality of wires.
Any suitable subset of a vector signaling code denotes a “sub code” of that code. Such a subcode may itself be a vector signaling code. With binary vector signaling, each component or “symbol” of the vector takes on one of two possible values. With non-binary vector signaling, each symbol has a value that is a selection from a set of more than two possible values. When transmitted as physical signals on a communications medium, symbols may be represented by particular physical values appropriate to that medium; as examples, in one embodiment a voltage of 150 mV may represent a “+1” symbol and a voltage of 50 mV may represent a “−1” symbol, while in another embodiment “+1” may be represented by 800 mV and “−1” as −800 mV.
A vector signaling code, as described herein, is a collection C of vectors of the same length N, called codewords. The ratio between the binary logarithm of the size of C and the length N is called the pin-efficiency of the vector signaling code. The Orthogonal Differential Vector Signaling codes of [Cronie I], [Cronie II], [Fox I], [Shokrollahi I], [Shokrollahi II], and [Shokrollahi III] are examples of vector signaling codes, and are used herein for descriptive purposes.
FIG. 1 illustrates a communication system employing vector signaling codes. Bits S0, S1, S2 enter block-wise 100 into an encoder 105. The size of the block may vary and depends on the parameters of the vector signaling code. The encoder generates a codeword of the vector signaling code for which the system is designed. In operation, the encoder may generate information used to control PMOS and NMOS transistors within driver 110, generating voltages or currents on the N communication wires 125 comprising the communications channel 120. Receiver 132 reads the signals on the wires, possibly including amplification, frequency compensation, and common mode signal cancellation. Receiver 132 provides its results to decoder 138, which recreates the input bits at 140, here shown as received bits R0, R1, R2.
Depending on which vector signaling code is used, there may be no decoder, or no encoder, or neither a decoder nor an encoder. For example, for the 8b8w code disclosed in [Cronie II], both encoder 112 and decoder 1138 exist. On the other hand, for the Hadamard code disclosed in [Cronie I], an explicit decoder may be unnecessary, as the system may be configured such that receiver 132 generates output bits 140 directly.
The operation of the transmitting device 110, comprising input data 100 and elements 112 and 118, and that of the receiving device 130, including element 132, optional element 138, and output data 140, have to be completely synchronized in order to guarantee correct functioning of the communication system. In some embodiments, this synchronization is performed by an external clock shared between the transmitter and the receiver. Other embodiments may combine the clock function with one or more of the data channels, as in the well-known Biphase encoding used for serial communications.
One important example is provided by memory interfaces in which a clock is generated on the controller and shared with the memory device. The memory device may use the clock information for its internal memory operations, as well as for I/O. Because of the burstiness and the asynchronicity of memory operations, the I/O may not be active all the time. Moreover, the main clock and the data lines may not be aligned due to skew. In such cases, additional strobe signals are used to indicate when to read and write the data.